Novel and conventional inhibitors of canonical autophagy differently affect LC3-associated phagocytosis.

In autophagy, LC3-positive autophagophores fuse and encapsulate the autophagic cargo in a double-membrane structure. In contrast, lipidated LC3 (LC3-II) is directly formed at the phagosomal membrane in LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP). In this study, we dissected the effects of autophagy inhibitors on LAP. SAR405, an inhibitor of VPS34, reduced levels of LC3-II and inhibited LAP. In contrast, the inhibitors of endosomal acidification bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine increased levels of LC3-II, due to reduced degradation in acidic lysosomes. However, while bafilomycin A1 inhibited LAP, chloroquine did not. Finally, EACC, which inhibits the fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes, promoted LC3 degradation possibly by the proteasome. Targeting LAP with small molecule inhibitors is important given its emerging role in infectious and autoimmune diseases.

ESAT-6 impedes IL-18 mediated phagosome lysosome fusion via microRNA-30a upon Calcimycin treatment in mycobacteria infected macrophages.

The weaponry possessed by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) in the form of immunodominant antigens hijack the host immune system to give a survival advantage to this intracellular fiend, but the mechanism of this control is not entirely known. Since we have previously reported the mechanism of autophagy inhibition by early secreted antigenic target 6 kDa (ESAT-6) through microRNA (miR)-30a-3p in Calcimycin treated differentiated THP-1 (dTHP-1) cells, the present study was undertaken to deduce the effect of miR-30a on the immunomodulatory profile of ESAT-6 treated cells and the mechanism involved thereof, if any. Initially, the effect of recombinant ESAT-6 (rESAT-6) on the immunomodulatory profile in Calcimycin-treated phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) dTHP-1 cells was checked. Later, transfection studies using miR-30a-3p inhibitor or -5p mimic highlighted the contrary roles of different arms of the same miRNA in regulating IL-18 response by ESAT-6 in dTHP-1 cells after Calcimycin treatment. By using either IL-18 neutralizing antibody or inhibitors of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/NF-κB/phagosome-lysosome fusion in the miRNA-30a transfected background, IL-18 mediated signaling and intracellular killing of mycobacteria was reversed in the presence of ESAT-6. Overall, the results of this study conclusively prove the contrary roles of miR-30a-3p and miR-30a-5p in regulating IL-18 signaling by ESAT-6 in dTHP-1 cells upon Calcimycin treatment that affected phagosome-lysosome fusion and intracellular survival of mycobacteria.

Small molecule probes for targeting autophagy.

Autophagy is implicated in a wide range of (patho)physiological processes including maintenance of cellular homeostasis, neurodegenerative disorders, aging and cancer. As such, small molecule autophagy modulators are in great demand, both for their ability to act as tools to better understand this essential process and as potential therapeutics. Despite substantial advances in the field, major challenges remain in the development and comprehensive characterization of probes that are specific to autophagy. In this Review, we discuss recent developments in autophagy-modulating small molecules, including the specific challenges faced in the development of activators and inhibitors, and recommend guidelines for their use. Finally, we discuss the potential to hijack the process for targeted protein degradation, an area of great importance in chemical biology and drug discovery.

Mitophagy is involved in the mitochondrial dysfunction of vitrified porcine oocytes.

Mitochondrial dysfunction is considered a crucial factor aggravating oocyte viability after vitrification-warming. To clarify the role of mitophagy in mitochondrial extinction of vitrified porcine oocytes, mitochondrial function, ultrastructural characteristics, mitochondria-lysosomes colocalization, and mitophagic proteins were detected with or without chloroquine (CQ) treatment. The results showed that vitrification caused mitochondrial dysfunction, including increasing reactive oxygen species production, decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial DNA copy number. Damaged mitochondrial cristae and mitophagosomes were observed in vitrified oocytes. A highly fused fluorescence distribution of mitochondria and lysosomes was also observed. In the detection of mitophagic flux, mitophagy was demonstrated as increasing fluorescence aggregation of microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B), enhanced colocalization between LC3B, and voltage-dependent anion channels 1 (VDAC1), and upregulated LC3B-II/I protein expression ratio. CQ inhibited the degradation of mitophagosomes in vitrified oocytes, manifested as decreased mitochondria-lysosomes colocalization, increased fluorescence fraction of VDAC1 overlapping LC3B, increased LC3B-II/I protein expression ratio, and p62 accumulation. The inhibition of mitophagosomes degradation by CQ aggravated mitochondrial dysfunction, including increased oxidative damage, reduced mitochondrial function, and further led to loss of oocyte viability and developmental potentiality. In conclusion, mitophagy is involved in the regulation of mitochondrial function during porcine oocyte vitrification.

The influence of coconut oil on the growth, immune, and antioxidative responses and the intestinal digestive enzymes and histomorphometry features of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus).

The trials of finding non-conventional and alternative aquafeed ingredients are increasing. In this sense, this study evaluated the influence of coconut oil on the growth, feed utilization, immune, and antioxidative responses of Nile tilapia. Five test diets were formulated by mixing coconut oil with the other ingredients at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4% of the total ration and presented for tilapia for 60 successive days. The final weight, SGR, weight gain (WG), and feed intake were superior in fish delivered 2% of coconut oil (P < 0.05). Concurrently, fish that received 2% coconut oil had lower FCR and higher PER than fish of the control and 4% groups (P < 0.05). Higher lipase activity was observed in fish of 2% and 3% levels than the remaining groups (P < 0.05). Besides, the amylase and protease activities of fish in 1%, 2%, and 3% groups were higher than the 0% level (P < 0.05). The total blood cholesterol, RBCs, and PCV showed higher values in Nile tilapia fed 2% and 3% coconut oil (P < 0.05). The lysozyme and phagocytic activities were higher in fish fed 2% and 3% levels than the control (P < 0.05), while the phagocytic index in 2% and 3% levels was higher than 0% and 4% levels. Furthermore, SOD and CAT were higher in fish fed 1%, 2%, and 3% than fish fed 0% and 4% levels while GSH was higher in fish of 1%, 2%, and 3% than fish fed 0% level (P < 0.05). However, the MDA level was markedly lower in fish fed 25, 3%, and 4% coconut oil than the 0% level (P < 0.05). The intestine's histological structure in all groups appeared normal, forming of intestinal villi projecting from the intestinal wall. Also, the structure of the hepatopancreas had a normal architecture in all groups. To sum up, the inclusion of coconut oil at 2 to 3% is recommended as a replacer for fish oil in Nile tilapia diets.

Docosahexaenoic acid impacts macrophage phenotype subsets and phagolysosomal membrane permeability with particle exposure.

Inhalation of particles results in pulmonary inflammation; however, treatments are currently lacking. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory capabilities. The impact of DHA on particle-induced inflammation is unclear; therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the hypothesis that DHA downregulates macrophage inflammatory responses by altering phagolysosomal membrane permeability (LMP) and shifting macrophage phenotype. Isolated Balb/c alveolar macrophages (AM) were polarized into M1, M2a, M2b, or M2c phenotypes in vitro, treated with DHA, and exposed to a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNCT) or crystalline silica (SiO2). Results showed minimal cytotoxicity, robust effects for silica particle uptake, and LMP differences between phenotypes. Docosahexaenoic acid prevented these effects to the greatest extent in M2c phenotype. To determine if DHA affected inflammation similarly in vivo, Balb/c mice were placed on a control or 1% DHA diet for 3 weeks, instilled with the same particles, and assessed 24 hr following instillation. Data demonstrated that in contrast to in vitro findings, DHA increased pulmonary inflammation and LMP. These results suggest that pulmonary responses in vivo may not necessarily be predicted from single-cell responses in vitro.

Enhanced Cd accumulation by Graphene oxide (GO) under Cd stress in duckweed.

Effective phytoremediation by aquatic plant such as duckweed could be applied to solve Cd pollution. In the present study, the impact of Graphene oxide (GO) on the accumulation of Cd in duckweed has been studied. The response of duckweed was also investigated, concluding growth, Cd2+ flux, and gene expression response. Results showed that GO promoted the accumulation of Cd in duckweed. After 6 h of Cd enrichment in duckweed, Cd content was about 1.4 times that of the control group at fronds and 1.25 times that of the control group at roots, meanwhile, Cd content in the water system was 0.67 times that of the control group. The Cd2+ influx increased significantly. 4471 genes were up-regulated and 3230 genes were down-regulated significantly as duckweed treated with GO under Cd treatment. Moreover, phagosome pathway was downregulated, some key proteins: Stx7, Rab7 and Tubastatin B (TUBB) were significantly downregulated with GO addition under Cd stress. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that GO and Cd were attached on the cell surface of duckweed as white crystal. GO could be applied in phytoremediation by duckweed of Cd in aquatic system.

GDF11 replenishment protects against hypoxia-mediated apoptosis in cardiomyocytes by regulating autophagy.

GDF11 has been reported to play a critical role in rejuvenating hypertrophy heart, skeletal muscle, and blood vessel regeneration in aged mice. Whether GDF11 can regulate autophagy in cardiomyocytes remains largely unknown. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of GDF11 on cardiomyocyte autophagy induced by hypoxia, in addition to the underlying mechanisms. By using the MTT assay, Flow cytometry assay, LIVE/DEAD® Viability/Cytotoxicity Kit Stains and TUNEL assay, we found that exogenous GDF11 decreased apoptosis caused by prolonged hypoxia in cardiomyocytes. The expression of GDF11 was decreased obviously both in the cardiac tissue of myocardial infarction mice and the hypoxia treated cardiomyocytes. Protein levels of cleaved caspase-3, p-AMPK, SQSTM1, LC3B-I/II and GDF11 were detected by western blot. Autophagosomes and autolysosomes were identified by confocal laser microscopy after transfecting with the mRFP-eGFP-LC3 plasmids. Antibody against GDF11 (anti-GDF11) was used to inhibit the function of GDF11. At the molecular level, exogenous GDF11 increased AMPK function and enhanced autophagy activity. Anti-GDF11 inhibited autophagy and aggravated hypoxia-induced apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. Thus, GDF11 might be a potential target for myocardial infarction therapy.

TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) mediates cadmium-induced autophagy in osteoblasts via the AMPK / mTORC1 / ULK1 pathway.

Cadmium (Cd) is one of worldwide environmental pollutants that causes bone homeostasis, which depends on the resorption of bones by osteoclasts and formation of bones by the osteoblasts (OB). However, the Cd toxicity on OB and its mechanism are unclear. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved degradation process in which domestic intracellular components are selectively digested for the recycling of nutrients and energy. This process is indispensable for cell homeostasis maintenance and stress responses. Dysregulation at the level of autophagic activity consequently disturbs the balance between bone formation and bone resorption and mediates the onset and progression of multiple bone diseases, including osteoporosis. TAK1 has been recently emerged as an activator of AMPK and hence an autophagy inducer. AMPK is a key molecule that induces autophagy and regulates cellular metabolism to maintain energy homeostasis. Conversely, autophagy is inhibited by mTORC1. In this study, we found that Cd treatment caused the formation of autophagosomes, LC3-II lipidation and p62 downregulation, and the increased autophagic flux, indicating that Cd treatment induced autophagy in OBs. Cd treatment induced TAK1 activation mediated AMPK phosphorylation, which promoted autophagy via phosphorylation of ULK1 at S317. Meanwhile, Cd treatment dramatically decreased mTORC1, S6K1, 4E-BP1, S6, ULK1S555 and ULK1S757 phosphorylation, suggesting that mTORC1 activity was inhibited and inactive mTORC1 prevents ULK1 activation by phosphorylating ULK1 at SerS555 and Ser757. Our data strongly suggest that TAK1 mediates AMPK activation, which activates ULK1 by phosphorylating ULK1S317 and suppressing mTORC1-mediated ULK1S555 and ULK1S757 phosphorylation. Our study has revealed a signaling mechanism for TAK1 in Cd-induced autophagy in OBs.

Mycobacterium marinum phthiocerol dimycocerosates enhance macrophage phagosomal permeabilization and membrane damage.

Phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs) are a class of mycobacterial lipids that promote virulence in Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium marinum. It has recently been shown that PDIMs work in concert with the M. tuberculosis Type VII secretion system ESX-1 to permeabilize the phagosomal membranes of infected macrophages. As the zebrafish-M. marinum model of infection has revealed the critical role of PDIM at the host-pathogen interface, we set to determine if PDIMs contributed to phagosomal permeabilization in M. marinum. Using an ΔmmpL7 mutant defective in PDIM transport, we find the PDIM-ESX-1 interaction to be conserved in an M. marinum macrophage infection model. However, we find PDIM and ESX-1 mutants differ in their degree of defect, with the PDIM mutant retaining more membrane damaging activity. Using an in vitro hemolysis assay-a common surrogate for cytolytic activity, we find that PDIM and ESX-1 differ in their contributions: the ESX-1 mutant loses hemolytic activity while PDIM retains it. Our observations confirm the involvement of PDIMs in phagosomal permeabilization in M. marinum infection and suggest that PDIM enhances the membrane disrupting activity of pathogenic mycobacteria and indicates that the role they play in damaging phagosomal and red blood cell membranes may differ.

Transcriptome changes of Takifugu obscurus liver after acute exposure to the oxygenated-PAH 9,10-phenanthrenequione.

Contamination with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) causes noticeable ecological problems in aquatic ecosystems. 9,10-Phenanthrenequione (9,10-PQ) is an oxidized PAH and is highly toxic to aquatic animals. However, the effects of 9,10-PQ on the molecular metabolism of fish remain largely unknown. In this study, Takifugu obscurus juveniles were acutely exposed to 44.30 µg/L 9,10-PQ for 3 days. The transcriptome profile changes in their livers were compared between the 9,10-PQ treatment group and the control using T. rubripes as the reference genome. The results identified 22,414 genes in our transcriptome. Among them, 767 genes were differentially expressed after exposure to 9,10-PQ, which enriched 16 KEGG pathways. Among them, the glycolysis, phagosome, and FOXO signaling pathways were significantly activated in 9,10-PQ treatment compared with the control. These data indicate that 9,10-PQ increased the glycolysis capacity to produce more energy for resistance and harmed immune function. Moreover, several genes related to tumorigenesis were significantly upregulated in response to 9,10-PQ, displaying the carcinogenic toxicity of 9,10-PQ to T. obscurus. Genes in steroid biosynthesis pathways were downregulated in the 9,10-PQ treatment group, suggesting interference with the endocrine system. Overall, these findings provide information to help evaluate the environmental risks that oxygenated-PAHs present to T. obscurus.

Prolonged tau clearance and stress vulnerability rescue by pharmacological activation of autophagy in tauopathy neurons.

Tauopathies are neurodegenerative diseases associated with accumulation of abnormal tau protein in the brain. Patient iPSC-derived neuronal cell models replicate disease-relevant phenotypes ex vivo that can be pharmacologically targeted for drug discovery. Here, we explored autophagy as a mechanism to reduce tau burden in human neurons and, from a small-molecule screen, identify the mTOR inhibitors OSI-027, AZD2014 and AZD8055. These compounds are more potent than rapamycin, and robustly downregulate phosphorylated and insoluble tau, consequently reducing tau-mediated neuronal stress vulnerability. MTORC1 inhibition and autophagy activity are directly linked to tau clearance. Notably, single-dose treatment followed by washout leads to a prolonged reduction of tau levels and toxicity for 12 days, which is mirrored by a sustained effect on mTORC1 inhibition and autophagy. This new insight into the pharmacodynamics of mTOR inhibitors in regulation of neuronal autophagy may contribute to development of therapies for tauopathies.

Rac1-dependent phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by oral squamous cell carcinoma cells: A possible driving force for tumor progression.

Apoptotic cell death frequently occurs in human cancer tissues including oral squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), wherein apoptotic tumor cells are phagocytosed not only by macrophages but also by neighboring tumor cells. We previously reported that the engulfment of apoptotic SCC cells by neighboring SCC cells frequently occurs at the invading front. Therefore, we hypothesized that the phagocytosis of these apoptotic cells by tumor cells contributes to disease progression. Herein, using cultured oral SCC cells, we aimed to confirm whether tumor cells actually phagocytose apoptotic cells and to examine whether cellular activities are regulated by the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Co-culture experiments showed that living cells could ingest apoptotic cells into phagolysosomes. NSC23766, an inhibitor of Rac1, which is a key regulator of phagocytic cup formation in professional phagocytes, dramatically suppressed the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by living cells. Additionally, cell migration and the secretion of DKK1, a tumor-promoting protein, were enhanced by co-culture with apoptotic cells, whereas NSC23766 inhibited these effects. These results show that tumor cells can actively phagocytose apoptotic neighbors in a Rac1-dependent manner and that such activity increases their migration. The regulation of apoptotic cell phagocytosis thus represents new directions for therapeutic intervention for oral cancer.

Pro-inflammatory activation following demyelination is required for myelin clearance and oligodendrogenesis.

Remyelination requires innate immune system function, but how exactly microglia and macrophages clear myelin debris after injury and tailor a specific regenerative response is unclear. Here, we asked whether pro-inflammatory microglial/macrophage activation is required for this process. We established a novel toxin-based spinal cord model of de- and remyelination in zebrafish and showed that pro-inflammatory NF-κB-dependent activation in phagocytes occurs rapidly after myelin injury. We found that the pro-inflammatory response depends on myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88). MyD88-deficient mice and zebrafish were not only impaired in the degradation of myelin debris, but also in initiating the generation of new oligodendrocytes for myelin repair. We identified reduced generation of TNF-α in lesions of MyD88-deficient animals, a pro-inflammatory molecule that was able to induce the generation of new premyelinating oligodendrocytes. Our study shows that pro-inflammatory phagocytic signaling is required for myelin debris degradation, for inflammation resolution, and for initiating the generation of new oligodendrocytes.

Inhalation Delivery of Host Defense Peptides (HDP) using Nano- Formulation Strategies: A Pragmatic Approach for Therapy of Pulmonary Ailments.

Host defense peptides (HDP) are small cationic molecules released by the immune systems of the body, having multidimensional properties including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial and immune-modulatory activity. These molecules gained importance due to their broad-spectrum pharmacological activities, and hence being actively investigated. Presently, respiratory infections represent a major global health problem, and HDP has an enormous potential to be used as an alternative therapeutics against respiratory infections and related inflammatory ailments. Because of their short half-life, protease sensitivity, poor pharmacokinetics, and first-pass metabolism, it is challenging to deliver HDP as such inside the physiological system in a controlled way by conventional delivery systems. Many HDPs are efficacious only at practically high molar-concentrations, which is not convincing for the development of drug regimen due to their intrinsic detrimental effects. To avail the efficacy of HDP in pulmonary diseases, it is essential to deliver an appropriate payload into the targeted site of lungs. Inhalable HDP can be a potentially suitable alternative for various lung disorders including tuberculosis, Cystic fibrosis, Pneumonia, Lung cancer, and others as they are active against resistant microbes and cells and exhibit improved targeting with reduced adverse effects. In this review, we give an overview of the pharmacological efficacy of HDP and deliberate strategies for designing inhalable formulations for enhanced activity and issues related to their clinical implications.

Sub-lethal concentrations of artemisinin alter pH of the digestive vacuole of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum.

An appropriate pH maintenance within a membrane-enclosed organelle is vital for the occurrence of biological processes. Artemisinin (ART), a potent antimalarial drug has been reported to target the digestive vacuole (DV) of Plasmodium falciparum, which might alter the pH of the organelle, thereby impairing the hemoglobin degradation and subsequent heme detoxification. Hence, a flow cytometry-based technique using fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) as a ratiometric pH probe was employed to measure the pH of the DV of the malaria parasite treated with ART. Based on the pH calibration curve generated, the steady-state pH of the acidic DV of the non-treated parasites was 5.42 ± 0.11, indicating that FITC-dextran is suitable for detection of physiological pH of the organelle. The alteration of the DV pH occurred when the parasites were treated with ART even at the sub-lethal concentrations (15 and 30 nM) used. The similar effect was shown by the parasites treated with a standard proton pump inhibitor, concanamycin A. This suggests that ART might have altered the DV pH at lower levels than the level needed to kill the parasite. This study has important implications in designing new ART treatment strategies and in generating new endoperoxide-based antimalarial drugs pertaining to the interruption of the pH regulation of the malaria parasite's DV.

Corticosterone induces neurotoxicity in PC12 cells via disrupting autophagy flux mediated by AMPK/mTOR signaling.

AIMS: Our previous study indicated that chronic stress caused autophagy impairment and subsequent neuron apoptosis in hippocampus. However, the mechanism underlying the stress-induced damage to neurons is unclear. In present work, we investigated whether stress-level glucocorticoids (GCs) GCs promoted PC12 cell damage via AMPK/mTOR signaling-mediated autophagy. METHODS: Chronic stress-induced PC12 cell injury model was built by treatment with high level corticosterone (CORT). Cell injury was evaluated by flow cytometry assay and transmission electron microscopy observation. RESULTS: Autophagy flux was measured based on the changes in LC3-II and P62 protein expressions, and the color alteration of mCherry-GFP-LC3-II transfection. Our results showed that CORT not only increased cell injury and apoptosis, but also dysregulated AMPK/mTOR signaling-mediated autophagy flux, as indicated by the upregulated expression of LC3-II and P62 proteins, and the lowered ration of autolysosomes to autophagosomes. Mechanistically, our results demonstrated that autophagy activation by AMPK activator metformin or mTOR inhibitor rapamycin obviously promotes cell survival and autophagy flux, improved mitochondrial ultrastructure, and reduced expression of Cyt-C and caspase-3 in CORT-induced PC12 cells. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that high CORT triggers PC12 cell damage through disrupting AMPK/mTOR-mediated autophagy flux. Targeting this signaling may be a promising approach to protect against high CORT and chronic stress-induced neuronal impairment.

Mitigation of cocaine-mediated mitochondrial damage, defective mitophagy and microglial activation by superoxide dismutase mimetics.

Although cocaine exposure has been shown to potentiate neuroinflammation by upregulating glial activation in the brain, the role of mitophagy in this process remains an enigma. In the present study, we sought to examine the role of impaired mitophagy in cocaine-mediated activation of microglia and to determine the ameliorative potential of superoxide dismutase mimetics in this context. Our findings demonstrated that exposure of mouse primary microglial cells (mPMs) to cocaine resulted in decreased mitochondrial membrane potential, that was accompanied by increased expression of mitophagy markers, PINK1 and PRKN. Exposure of microglia to cocaine also resulted in increased expression of DNM1L and OPTN with a concomitant decrease in the rate of mitochondrial oxygen consumption as well as impaired mitochondrial functioning. Additionally, in the presence of cocaine, microglia also exhibited upregulated expression of autophagosome markers, BECN1, MAP1LC3B-II, and SQSTM1. Taken together, these findings suggested diminished mitophagy flux and accumulation of mitophagosomes in the presence of cocaine. These findings were further confirmed by imaging techniques such as transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Cocaine-mediated activation of microglia was further monitored by assessing the expression of the microglial marker (ITGAM) and the inflammatory cytokine (Tnf, Il1b, and Il6) mRNAs. Pharmacological, as well as gene-silencing approaches aimed at blocking both the autophagy/mitophagy and SIGMAR1 expression, underscored the role of impaired mitophagy in cocaine-mediated activation of microglia. Furthermore, superoxide dismutase mimetics such as TEMPOL and MitoTEMPO were shown to alleviate cocaine-mediated impaired mitophagy as well as microglial activation.Abbreviations: 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; Δψm: mitochondrial membrane potential; ACTB: actin, beta; AIF1: allograft inflammatory factor 1; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; BAF: bafilomycin A1; BECN1: beclin 1, autophagy related; CNS: central nervous system; DNM1L: dynamin 1 like; DMEM: Dulbecco modified Eagle medium; DAPI: 4,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole; DRD2: dopamine receptor D2; ECAR: extracellular acidification rate; FBS: fetal bovine serum; FCCP: Trifluoromethoxy carbonylcyanide phenylhydrazone; GAPDH: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; IL1B: interleukin 1, beta; IL6: interleukin 6; ITGAM: integrin subunit alpha M; MAP1LC3B: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; mPMs: mouse primary microglial cells; MRC: maximal respiratory capacity; NFKB: nuclear factor kappa B; NLRP3: NLR family pyrin domain containing 3; NTRK2: neurotrophic receptor tyrosine kinase 2; OCR: oxygen consumption rate; OPTN: optineurin; PBS: phosphate buffered saline; PINK1: PTEN induced putative kinase 1; PRKN: parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase; ROS: reactive oxygen species; siRNA: small interfering RNA; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; TNF: tumor necrosis factor.

Growth hormone-mediated reprogramming of macrophage transcriptome and effector functions.

Macrophages are an important component of the innate immune response. Priming and activation of macrophages is stimulated by cytokines (i.e IFNγ). However, growth hormone (GH) can also stimulate macrophage activation. Based on these observations, the goal of this work was to 1) to compare the transcriptome profile of macrophages activated in vitro with GH and IFNγ, and 2) to assess the impact of GH on key macrophage functional properties like reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and phagosomal proteolysis. To assess the global transcriptional and functional impact of GH on macrophage programming, bone marrow derived macrophages were treated with GH or IFNγ. Our data strongly support a potential link between GH, which wanes with age, and impaired macrophage function. The notable overlap of GH with IFNγ-induced pathways involved in innate immune sensing of pathogens and antimicrobial responses argue for an important role for GH in macrophage priming and maturation. By using functional assays that report on biochemical activities within the lumen of phagosomes, we have also shown that GH alters physiologically relevant processes such as ROS production and proteolysis. These changes could have far reaching impacts on antimicrobial capacity, signaling, and antigen presentation.

Targeting redox heterogeneity to counteract drug tolerance in replicating Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The capacity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) to tolerate multiple antibiotics represents a major problem in tuberculosis (TB) management. Heterogeneity in Mtb populations is one of the factors that drives antibiotic tolerance during infection. However, the mechanisms underpinning this variation in bacterial population remain poorly understood. Here, we show that phagosomal acidification alters the redox physiology of Mtb to generate a population of replicating bacteria that display drug tolerance during infection. RNA sequencing of this redox-altered population revealed the involvement of iron-sulfur (Fe-S) cluster biogenesis, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas, and drug efflux pumps in antibiotic tolerance. The fraction of the pH- and redox-dependent tolerant population increased when Mtb infected macrophages with actively replicating HIV-1, suggesting that redox heterogeneity could contribute to high rates of TB therapy failure during HIV-TB coinfection. Pharmacological inhibition of phagosomal acidification by the antimalarial drug chloroquine (CQ) eradicated drug-tolerant Mtb, ameliorated lung pathology, and reduced postchemotherapeutic relapse in in vivo models. The pharmacological profile of CQ (C max and AUClast) exhibited no major drug-drug interaction when coadministered with first line anti-TB drugs in mice. Our data establish a link between phagosomal pH, redox metabolism, and drug tolerance in replicating Mtb and suggest repositioning of CQ to shorten TB therapy and achieve a relapse-free cure.